LECTURA INTENSIVA
Computational Combustion
Introduction
As the Combustion Institute celebrates its 50th anniversary, it is an interesting coincidence that the science of computer simulation and modeling is also approximately 50 years old. Beginning as a technical curiosity with minor impact on scientific research, computer modeling has grown rapidly to play a major role in virtually every field of science and engineering. In particular, computer modeling is now an essential part of combustion research; at the larger scale, enormous computer simulations are assisting in design and optimization of internal combustion engines, solid fuel rocket motors, industrial burners and furnaces, and gas turbine combustors, using massively parallel super computers. At the smaller scale, computer simulations are ubiquitous in everyday combustion life, being used to control operation of individual laboratory experiments, fit spectra in basic science studies, and a multitude of other research and routine applications.
Of course, the electronic computer is not the only modern feature of combustion science. In fact, most of the tools we use today have appeared and become essential during the past 50 years. It is almost impossible today to imagine a research project without the laser, the gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer, and many other tools, in addition to the computer. And each of these tools has grown rapidly in terms of capabilities and importance, although the growth of the computer as a tool has outstripped them all. All of them are indicative of the rapid pace of technological growth, and we must assume that future growth will be at least as rapid and profound. We should continually ask ourselves if we are realizing comparable growth in our understanding of and ability to control the combustion processes that are so much a part of our lives. As we will hope to describe in this paper, computer simulations have certainly added a great deal of understanding, providing fundamental answers to many long-standing questions.
Computational combustion is an enormous topic, with many of the different aspects deserving and receiving reviews by themselves. We are attempting to provide an unusual sort of overview, highlighting those areas in which computer simulations have made an important difference in the way we do research, and emphasizing some of the computational contributions that have provided unique and important insights into the nature of combustion itself. These range from cases in which modelling solved longstanding puzzles or problems, to cases in which modelling changed the views of the entire combustion community. We highlight the case of HCCI combustion, where the existence of a mature simulation capability has revolutionized the overall research plan for an industry; the HCCI may or may not make a significant impact on power production, but we emphasize it because it illustrates the nature of the research team of the present and future, and the complete integration of computer modelling into research and development. We finish by taking the pulse of the near future in scientific computing to see what is about to become possible in terms of addressing difficult problems that have never been solved, simply because of their size and complexity. Combustion is one of many disciplines imbedded in a scientific world where the power of the computer is driving much of our progress, and we want to provide a glimpse of the next generation of problems that will be enabled just by continued growth in computer capacity.
This review is necessarily unbalanced; for example, we focus on modelling of laminar premixed flames and devote no space to laminar diffusion flames. We also discuss models of internal combustion engines but omit gas turbines and furnaces. The inclusions and exclusions reflect the strengths and weaknesses in the experiences of the authors, and they also are motivated by the limited space and time available to us. However, we have tried to include those areas in which computer modelling has grown and then made significant technical advances. In some cases, our choices were simplified by the existence of a recent expert review in some area that we could cite for those interested in further information.
Fuente: Westbrook, C K ; Mizobuchi, Y ; Poinsot, T J ; Smith, P J ; Warnatz, J. (2004). Computational Combustion. Revista Electrónica: Energy Citations Database. Buscador: Scholar Google. http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/servlets/purl/15014799-PhugMg/native/.
martes, 4 de marzo de 2008
viernes, 25 de enero de 2008
UNIDAD IV
FUNCIONES RETÓRICAS BÁSICAS DE LOS TEXTOS
TEXTO A
Teaching Styles
Your teaching style is expressed through the behaviors, characteristics and mannerisms that reflect your teaching philosophy and the role you prefer to take when conveying information in a classroom. They are important because how you present yourself to a class can have a huge impact on your success as a teacher, and consequently, on the success of your students. In his 1996 book, Teaching with Style, Anthony Grasha identified five potential approaches for classroom teachers: Expert, Formal Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator, and Delegator. The following three styles are usually the best options for library instruction:
Expert & Formal Authority
Present themselves as possessing knowledge and expertise that students need. Mainly concerned with verbally (lecture) transmitting as much information as possible to the students.
• Advantages: knowledge and skills are thoroughly conveyed; commands respect.
• Disadvantages: heavy display of knowledge can be intimidating to less experienced students; may not always show the underlying thought processes.
Personal Model - Demonstrator
Believe in "teaching by personal example." Oversees, guides, and directs by showing how to do things, and encouraging students to observe and then to emulate the instructor's approach.
• Advantages: emphasizes direct observation; provides an effective example to follow
• Disadvantages: some teachers may be rigid and discourage a personalized approach; may lead to frustration if students cannot complete the tasks as effectively as the teacher.
Facilitator
Emphasizes the personal nature of teacher-student interactions. Guides and directs students by asking questions, exploring options, suggesting alternatives, and encouraging them to develop independent styles and ideas. Works with students on projects in a consultative fashion and tries to provide as much support and encouragement as possible.
• Advantages: focus on students' specific needs and goals; provides options or alternatives for students, encourages higher-level teaching skills
• Disadvantages: time consuming (less material can be covered), unpredictability (instructor must be flexible)
Though everyone naturally has an individualized approach, you can easily plan and lead your class with one of the above styles. Knowing the best approach is often just a matter of knowing your audience and their needs. For example, taking the Expert stance may be best when addressing experienced faculty who are looking to librarians for advice and assistance. International students, who may have more trouble understanding verbal explanations, may benefit from a Personal Model approach. Finally, undergraduates and others new to library research often learn more when taught by a Facilitator.
Fuente: University of Texas (2005). Teaching Styles. Buscador: Google.com.ve/. http://www.lib.utexas.edu/services/instruction/tips/tf/tf_tstyles.html.
TEXTO B
Types of Intelligence
This part of our website will be concentrating on trying to define or catagorize intelligence. As you can imagine, this is potentially a very difficult process since the world is not constituted of one aspect of life. That is to say that if everyone in the world worked for one thing, let’s just say being the world’s best weight lifter, there would only be one type of person in the world. We could either categorize an individual as being a good weight lifter or a bad weightlifter. Fortunately that is not how the world works; so you see, this is what makes today’s categorizing of intellect so difficult. One person may be a carpenter and be excellent at working with wood; another person may be a physics professor and be excellent at remembering formulas, and figuring out mathematical relationships. I would say that both of these people are intelligent, in their own way. But what does “in their own way” mean, and how can we catagorize someone’s intelligence?
Left vs. Right
Let’s start out by cutting one category of intelligence into two; Left and Right brain. You may have heard someone tell you that they are more “left-brained” than “right-brained”. What does this mean?
Our brains are structurally/physically split into two separate halves by the corpus callosum. This physical boundary sets up a nice way to describe the brain; left versus right side. It is known that the differing sides of the brain perform different functions. For example, for 95% of right handed people, the area in the brain that is in charge of speech is located on the left half of the brain.
Compiling all of the specilized functions to their respective hemisphere (right and left), we are able to catagagorize and individual as “right-brained” or “left-brained” depending on what features show up as dominant in that individual.
Left
. Logical
• Sequential
• Rational
• Analytical
• Objective
• Looks at parts
• Systematic
• Symbolic
• Linear
• Factual
• AbstracT
• Digital
Right
• Random
• Intuitive
• Holistic
• Sythesizing
• Subjective
• Looks at wholes
• Non-verbal
• Casual
• Concrete
• Visual
• Sensory
• Spatial
• Emotional
Here is a list of common features that show up on the respective halves:
http://www.funderstanding.com/right_left_brain.cfm
http://www.educationthroughmusic.com/brain.htm
However, it was not good enough to only have two different types of people (i.e. left-brained or right-brained). This is still too vague and most everyone has strong-points in the right half and left half both, so it is hard to tell which half is the dominant.
The Seven Types of Intelligence
1983, in a publication called “Frames of Mind”, Psychologist Howard Gardner (pictured below) created seven types of individual strengths to help teachers and students understand the strengths of individuals that span the entire spectrum. They are listed here with respect to gifted or talented children:
1. Verbal – the ability to use words
2. Visual – the ability to imagine things in your mind
3. Physical – the ability to use your body in various situations
4. Musical - the ability to use and understand music
5. Mathematical – the ability to apply logic to systems and numbers
6. Introspective – the ability to understand your inner thoughts
7. Interpersonal – the ability to understand other people, and relate well to them
(http://gsmweb.udallas.edu/iep/immweb/seven_intel.html )
*In other sources, there may be nine different types of intelligence. The other two that are not included on the list above are:
Naturalist Intelligence (“Nature Smart”) – Sensitive to living things. Gardner added this to his original list of seven years later).
Existential Intelligence – the ability to tackle deep questions about human existence such as the meaning of life, how did we get here, and what happens when we die.
(http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Education/Educator/Workshops/CalState/Images/Seven_Types.jpg)
What is your strongest type of intelligence?
Here are some easy questions to answer for each category:
Verbal – are you good at doing crossword puzzles? Do you like to read and write? Do you like expanding your vocabulary?
Visual – do you see colorful images in your mind? Do you use charts and visuals to get points across? Can you get a sense of what something will look like?
Logical-Mathematical – Do you work well with numbers? Do you like putting things in order or? Are you good at planning?
Bodily-Physical – Do you like hands on stuff? Do you need to involve movement in everything? Do you have a favorite pastime that involves physical activity or moving?
Musical – Are you always moving to or thinking of a rhythm? Do you remember tunes and lyrics easily? Are you easily distracted by sounds? Do you enjoy sounds of all types?
Introspective – Do you enjoy solitude? Are you reflective? Do you like to explore your own feelings and thoughts?
Interpersonal – Are you good with others/people smart? Can you mediate arguments? Are you sensitive to others? Do you like teams, meetings, committees, and social events?
Fuente: Neuroscience of intelligence. (2005). Types of intelligence. Buscador: Google.com.ve/.http://www.Macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/intelligence05/Mtypes.html.
TEXTO C
internal-combustion engine - a heat engine in which combustion occurs inside the engine rather than in a separate furnace; heat expands a gas that either moves a piston or turns a gas turbine
ICE
diesel engine, diesel motor, diesel - an internal-combustion engine that burns heavy oil
cylinder block, engine block, block - a metal casting containing the cylinders and cooling ducts of an engine; "the engine had to be replaced because the block was cracked"
four-stroke engine, four-stroke internal-combustion engine - an internal-combustion engine in which an explosive mixture is drawn into the cylinder on the first stroke and is compressed and ignited on the second stroke; work is done on the third stroke and the products of combustion are exhausted on the fourth stroke
gas engine - an internal-combustion engine similar to a gasoline engine but using natural gas instead of gasoline vapor
gasoline engine - an internal-combustion engine that burns gasoline; most automobiles are driven by gasoline engines
heat engine - any engine that makes use of heat to do work
force feed, force-feed lubricating system, lubricating system, pressure feed, pressure-feed lubricating system - mechanical system of lubricating internal combustion engines in which a pump forces oil into the engine bearings
motorboat, powerboat - a boat propelled by an internal-combustion engine
automotive vehicle, motor vehicle - a self-propelled wheeled vehicle that does not run on rails
outboard motor, outboard - internal-combustion engine that mounts at stern of small boat
poppet, poppet valve - a mushroom-shaped valve that rises perpendicular from its seat; commonly used in internal-combustion engines
radial engine, rotary engine - an internal-combustion engine having cylinders arranged radially around a central crankcase
reciprocating engine - an internal-combustion engine in which the crankshaft is turned by pistons moving up and down in cylinders
rotary engine - an internal-combustion engine in which power is transmitted directly to rotating components
self-starter - an electric starting motor that automatically starts an internal-combustion engine
supercharger - compressor that forces increased oxygen into the cylinders of an internal-combustion engine
valve-in-head engine - internal-combustion engine having both inlet and exhaust valves located in the cylinder head
Fuente: The Free Dictionary, (2004) Internal Combustion Engine. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/internal-combustion%20engine, p. 1.
TEXTO D
Engine repair by Xado Additives Pro Series Small Engine repair | Engine Rebuilding Repair Exchange | Additive Engine Oil | Diesel Engine Maintenance. Complete Revitalization for all car mechanisms.
Optimize, Improve and Perfect the Tolerances in your Engine
Treatment Instructions
Following the present instruction ensures the desired technical effect and reliable and safe operation of units and friction joints.
1. In the presence of fresh molybdenum or teflon additives in the oil effectiveness of XADO may decrease.
2. This cermet protective coating is formed on any rubbing surfaces. However,if the conditions of given mechanism,engine, cylinder-and-piston group are critical (100% wear), destroyed parts need be replaced.
3. Prior to each treatment stage the engine is to be warmed up to its working temperature.
4. To obtaine the best effect, operate the motor car over the whole treatment period in a run-in mode(without overloading).
5. To obtaine the best effect after treatment of a cylinder, operate the motor car for 250 km in a run-in mode (without overloading).
6. Long storage is recommended at a temperature not exceeding 40oC.
7. Recommended for use on all new motor cars, joints and units.
Treatment procedure for internal combustion engines according to XADO-technology:
1. All engines are treatable. This cermet coating is formed on any functional mechanism. However,if the conditions of the mechanism are critical (100% wear), any destroyed parts need be replaced.
2. Complete treatment of an engine is performed in 3 stages:
1. Stage I. Warm the engine to its working temperature. Introduce the estimated quantity of XADO compound through the oil filler neck. Start the engine and allow it to idle for 30 min. Following this drive about 15-20 km with a minimal load (rotational speed of the engine maximum 2.500 r.p.m.)
2. Stage II. To be performed after a 100-250 km run in the same sequence. This treatment can be carried out after 4 h idling cycle of the engine (equivalent to a 200 km run)
3. Stage III. To be performed after a 100-250 km run in the same sequence.
3. After a 2.500 km run for carburetor and a 4.000 km run for commercial diesel engines from the start of Stage I, the engine treatment is considered completed.
Notes.
* This treatment should be performed without changing oil.
* Prior to treatment it is essential to wash cetrufugal filters.
* The engine must be warmed to at least 60 oC.
* This technique is also designed for engines, which have been converted to run on gaseous fuel.
Treatment procedure for reducers, transfer boxes and gearboxes according to XADO-technology
1. Introduce into the gearbox,transfer box or rear axle reducer XADO gel through the oil filler opening in the amount of 1 tube per 1.5 l of oil.
2. Immediately after said introduction of XADO gel drive about 10 km, including 100-300 m in reverse.
3. The treatment is considered completed after 100 h operation of the mechanism (3.000 km run)
Note. If after a 100-200 km run the mechanism's performance is not improved, the most likely cause of this may be a wrong diagnosis. Any inconsiderable improvement evidenced heavy wear of the mechanism. We recommend to double the dosage.
Treatment procedures for engines without oil system
1. Warm up the engine to the working temperature.
2. Unscrew the spark-plug out of the cylinder. If the engine has two cylinders, unscrew the spark-plugs out of both cylinders.
3. Place the piston to the top dead point (to prevent the gel come into the inlet and exhaust ports). If the head is removable then apply the gel directly to the walls of the cylinder and make the piston move 30-40 times not reaching inlet and exhaust ports. Then assemble the unit and fulfill items 5-9.
4. Squeeze the contents of one tube into the cylinder. If there are two cylinders then squeeze one tube into each cylinder.
Attention. You should squeeze the gel so as it comes to the wall of the cylinder, not to the piston .
5. Make piston move 15-20 times (by tugging, turning the set-up drive wheel)
6. Screw the spark-plug
7. Dissolve the contents of one more tube in 5-10 ml of motor oil and pour into the fuel tank
8. Start the engine and let it work on idle for 20-30 minutes
9. Drive 15-20 km with minimal load
10. After 250 km run the treatment is considered over.
TEXTO E
Inventors Rudolf Diesel (1858 - 1913)
By Mary Bellis
Rudolf Diesel was born in Paris in 1858. His parents were Bavarian immigrants. Rudolf Diesel was educated at Munich Polytechnic. After graduation he was employed as a refrigerator engineer. However, he true love lay in engine design. Rudolf Diesel designed many heat engines, including a solar-powered air engine. In 1893, he published a paper describing an engine with combustion within a cylinder, the internal combustion engine. In 1894, he filed for a patent for his new invention, dubbed the diesel engine. Rudolf Diesel was almost killed by his engine when it exploded. However, his engine was the first that proved that fuel could be ignited without a spark. He operated his first successful engine in 1897.
In 1898, Rudolf Diesel was granted patent #608,845 for an "internal combustion engine" the Diesel engine.
The diesel engines of today are refined and improved versions of Rudolf Diesel's original concept. They are often used in submarines, ships, locomotives, and large trucks and in electric generating plants.
Though best known for his invention of the pressure-ignited heat engine that bears his name, Rudolf Diesel was also a well-respected thermal engineer and a social theorist. Rudolf Diesel's inventions have three points in common: They relate to heat transference by natural physical processes or laws; they involve markedly creative mechanical design; and they were initially motivated by the inventor's concept of sociological needs. Rudolf Diesel originally conceived the diesel engine to enable independent craftsmen and artisans to compete with large industry.
At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10-foot iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. Rudolf Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with the theoretical efficiency of 75 percent, in contrast to the ten percent efficiency of the steam engine. By 1898, Rudolf Diesel was a millionaire. His engines were used to power pipelines, electric and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft, and soon after were used in mines, oil fields, factories, and transoceanic shipping.
Fuente: Bellis, M. (2003). Inventors Rudolf Diesel (1858 – 1913). Buscador: Google.Com.ve/. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bldiesel.htm.
TEXTO F
A Brief History of ME at Caltech
by Christopher E. Brennen Brief history of ME at Caltech
Like the rest of this special institution we call Caltech, the contributions and accomplishments of the Mechanical Engineering Department and faculty have been twofold. On the one hand our students have gone out into the world to power engineering innovation in industry, in government and especially in the universities of the world. On the other hand our faculty and students have made ground-breaking research contributions to key engineering issues and to new technologies.
Like the rest of Caltech, our students are represented in the faculties of the world in numbers out of all proportion to the number of our graduates. From MIT to Michigan and Princeton, from Georgia Tech to Illinois and Johns Hopkins, our Mechanical Engineering graduates are everywhere - including places as far flung as the National University of Taiwan, the University of Pisa, and the National Autonomous University of Mexico.
But also many of our graduates have risen to key positions in industry - in the aerospace business, in the oil industy, in the semiconductor industry, and more recently in the business of inventing new engineering technologies - indeed the scope of the presentations at the ME Centennial show how broad our contributions have been.
With respect to our research accomplishments, like many other Caltech engineering departments it is fair to say that we got off to a slow start in the early days, when the ``Division of Civil and Mechanical Engineering'' (as it was called at the time) focused on training engineers rather than research. Even then, however, our faculty were much involved with the Metropolitan Water District in the planning of the remarkable Colorado River Aqueduct System. Indeed the Pump Lab - which in its various phases was a very valuable contributor to this basic technology - had its start with that project. Thus it was that faculty like Franklin Thomas, Robert Dougherty, Howell Tyson and Don Clark laid the ground work for the new era of engineering research that was to come during and after the Second World War. Encouraged by von Karman, who had himself only recently arrived at Caltech, Robert Knapp built the world's leading research laboratory for cavitation and high-speed water flows. The Hydrodynamics Laboratory and its associated faculty -- Knapp, Hollander, Plesset, Acosta and Wu -- reeled off a body of fundamental research in this area that dominated the subject for decades and, by extension, led to numerous innovations in naval and other applications. It even makes an appearance in Tom Clancy's ``Hunt for Red October''. Moreover, the early work in cavitation naturally led to research in other multiphase flows. Plesset, Sabersky and Marble, for example, were deeply involved in the multiphase research needed for the analysis of nuclear reactor accident scenarios. Sabersky was perhaps one of the world leaders in identifying the problems and issues associated with granular material flows, an area in which research continues to this day.
Other parallel efforts in internal flows began about the same time. The Pump Lab under Knapp's direction continued to revolutionize knowledge of the internal workings of those ubiquitous machines. Kyropoulos's interest in internal combustion engines initiated a strong interaction with GM. And in the same era, Rannie and Sabersky began the first basic investigations of the internal flows in axial turbomachines - an effort that expanded through the efforts of Rannie and Marble into fundamental research on gas turbines and combustion that provided important steps in the development of the modern gas turbine. Later, Zukoski expanded this combustion research to fires in buildings and contributed significantly to the effort and strategy of fire prevention.
The effort in turbomachine research continued through the last quarter of the 1900s, but with the focus shifted to key research on the unsteady flows and instabilities associated with these devices. This led to the first delineation of the dynamic response of these complex flows and a methodology for the analysis of instabilities such as the Pogo instability endemic to liquid-propelled rockets. In a parallel effort, Culick identified mechanisms of instability in solid rocket motors.
This later emphasis on dynamics of all kinds of mechanical devices and natural processes was a strong component of the ME research during the late 1900s. Caughey contributed a veritable library of key advances in understanding non-linear dynamics and how to view the complex probabilistic components of non-linear vibrations.
About the same time Knowles, Sternberg and Shield were making fundamental contributions to the mathematical theory of elasticity. They initiated a systematic study of material instabilities, and this naturally led to the study of phase-transforming solids and active materials. Concepts introduced by Knowles are now part of the standard language of the mechanics of these materials.
Beginning in the mid 1980's, the ME department underwent another metamorphosis, as large in scope as the post-war transformation. Young faculty were hired who struck out in new research directions and who went on to make seminal contributions in fields such as design, control, medical robotics, computational mechanics, thin films and microdevices. ME faculty also took on substantial administrative and leadership roles during this time, including as EAS Division Chair, Chief Technologist at JPL, Vice-President for Student Affairs, Dean of Students, Chair of the Faculty, and Director of GALCIT, greatly expanding the visibility and influence of ME as a whole within the Institute.
Today, there is no doubt that the strength, scope, and visibility of the ME faculty and its activities are greater than they have ever been. As one measure, Caltech's ME program is ranked third in the nation by US News and World Report despite being an order of magnitude smaller than the competition. Remarkably, all of our eligible faculty have won prestigious young investigator awards. Our research activity encompasses new and exciting areas such as robotics in biomedical and biological contexts, new and exotic materials areas such as chemical vapor deposition, fuel cells, and materials with memory, computational efforts to model the most complex solids and fluids, studies of combustion and detonation, analyses and experiments on fracture in materials and in the earth's surface and on granular flows, strategies to model the dynamics and design of large scale systems.
And what of the future? Though predictions of the future are notoriously difficult, research on the crucial topic of meeting the world's energy needs without destroying the planet in the process will certainly be a major focus. Moreover, it also seems clear that there will be real opportunities in three key areas: mechanical engineering on the micro- and nano-scale, research at the boundaries of biology and engineering, and efforts to design and control large and complex engineering systems. ME must strive to find the unique Caltech contributions to these efforts and the world's needs. How will it all turn out? We don't know, but we expect an exciting ride - stay tuned, and we'll tell you all about it at our bicentennial in 2107.
Fuente: Brennen, Ch. (2007). A Brief History of ME at Caltech”. Buscador: Google.co.ve/. http://www.me.caltech.edu/centennial/history/history1.htm
TEXTO A
Teaching Styles
Your teaching style is expressed through the behaviors, characteristics and mannerisms that reflect your teaching philosophy and the role you prefer to take when conveying information in a classroom. They are important because how you present yourself to a class can have a huge impact on your success as a teacher, and consequently, on the success of your students. In his 1996 book, Teaching with Style, Anthony Grasha identified five potential approaches for classroom teachers: Expert, Formal Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator, and Delegator. The following three styles are usually the best options for library instruction:
Expert & Formal Authority
Present themselves as possessing knowledge and expertise that students need. Mainly concerned with verbally (lecture) transmitting as much information as possible to the students.
• Advantages: knowledge and skills are thoroughly conveyed; commands respect.
• Disadvantages: heavy display of knowledge can be intimidating to less experienced students; may not always show the underlying thought processes.
Personal Model - Demonstrator
Believe in "teaching by personal example." Oversees, guides, and directs by showing how to do things, and encouraging students to observe and then to emulate the instructor's approach.
• Advantages: emphasizes direct observation; provides an effective example to follow
• Disadvantages: some teachers may be rigid and discourage a personalized approach; may lead to frustration if students cannot complete the tasks as effectively as the teacher.
Facilitator
Emphasizes the personal nature of teacher-student interactions. Guides and directs students by asking questions, exploring options, suggesting alternatives, and encouraging them to develop independent styles and ideas. Works with students on projects in a consultative fashion and tries to provide as much support and encouragement as possible.
• Advantages: focus on students' specific needs and goals; provides options or alternatives for students, encourages higher-level teaching skills
• Disadvantages: time consuming (less material can be covered), unpredictability (instructor must be flexible)
Though everyone naturally has an individualized approach, you can easily plan and lead your class with one of the above styles. Knowing the best approach is often just a matter of knowing your audience and their needs. For example, taking the Expert stance may be best when addressing experienced faculty who are looking to librarians for advice and assistance. International students, who may have more trouble understanding verbal explanations, may benefit from a Personal Model approach. Finally, undergraduates and others new to library research often learn more when taught by a Facilitator.
Fuente: University of Texas (2005). Teaching Styles. Buscador: Google.com.ve/. http://www.lib.utexas.edu/services/instruction/tips/tf/tf_tstyles.html.
TEXTO B
Types of Intelligence
This part of our website will be concentrating on trying to define or catagorize intelligence. As you can imagine, this is potentially a very difficult process since the world is not constituted of one aspect of life. That is to say that if everyone in the world worked for one thing, let’s just say being the world’s best weight lifter, there would only be one type of person in the world. We could either categorize an individual as being a good weight lifter or a bad weightlifter. Fortunately that is not how the world works; so you see, this is what makes today’s categorizing of intellect so difficult. One person may be a carpenter and be excellent at working with wood; another person may be a physics professor and be excellent at remembering formulas, and figuring out mathematical relationships. I would say that both of these people are intelligent, in their own way. But what does “in their own way” mean, and how can we catagorize someone’s intelligence?
Left vs. Right
Let’s start out by cutting one category of intelligence into two; Left and Right brain. You may have heard someone tell you that they are more “left-brained” than “right-brained”. What does this mean?
Our brains are structurally/physically split into two separate halves by the corpus callosum. This physical boundary sets up a nice way to describe the brain; left versus right side. It is known that the differing sides of the brain perform different functions. For example, for 95% of right handed people, the area in the brain that is in charge of speech is located on the left half of the brain.
Compiling all of the specilized functions to their respective hemisphere (right and left), we are able to catagagorize and individual as “right-brained” or “left-brained” depending on what features show up as dominant in that individual.
Left
. Logical
• Sequential
• Rational
• Analytical
• Objective
• Looks at parts
• Systematic
• Symbolic
• Linear
• Factual
• AbstracT
• Digital
Right
• Random
• Intuitive
• Holistic
• Sythesizing
• Subjective
• Looks at wholes
• Non-verbal
• Casual
• Concrete
• Visual
• Sensory
• Spatial
• Emotional
Here is a list of common features that show up on the respective halves:
http://www.funderstanding.com/right_left_brain.cfm
http://www.educationthroughmusic.com/brain.htm
However, it was not good enough to only have two different types of people (i.e. left-brained or right-brained). This is still too vague and most everyone has strong-points in the right half and left half both, so it is hard to tell which half is the dominant.
The Seven Types of Intelligence
1983, in a publication called “Frames of Mind”, Psychologist Howard Gardner (pictured below) created seven types of individual strengths to help teachers and students understand the strengths of individuals that span the entire spectrum. They are listed here with respect to gifted or talented children:
1. Verbal – the ability to use words
2. Visual – the ability to imagine things in your mind
3. Physical – the ability to use your body in various situations
4. Musical - the ability to use and understand music
5. Mathematical – the ability to apply logic to systems and numbers
6. Introspective – the ability to understand your inner thoughts
7. Interpersonal – the ability to understand other people, and relate well to them
(http://gsmweb.udallas.edu/iep/immweb/seven_intel.html )
*In other sources, there may be nine different types of intelligence. The other two that are not included on the list above are:
Naturalist Intelligence (“Nature Smart”) – Sensitive to living things. Gardner added this to his original list of seven years later).
Existential Intelligence – the ability to tackle deep questions about human existence such as the meaning of life, how did we get here, and what happens when we die.
(http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Education/Educator/Workshops/CalState/Images/Seven_Types.jpg)
What is your strongest type of intelligence?
Here are some easy questions to answer for each category:
Verbal – are you good at doing crossword puzzles? Do you like to read and write? Do you like expanding your vocabulary?
Visual – do you see colorful images in your mind? Do you use charts and visuals to get points across? Can you get a sense of what something will look like?
Logical-Mathematical – Do you work well with numbers? Do you like putting things in order or? Are you good at planning?
Bodily-Physical – Do you like hands on stuff? Do you need to involve movement in everything? Do you have a favorite pastime that involves physical activity or moving?
Musical – Are you always moving to or thinking of a rhythm? Do you remember tunes and lyrics easily? Are you easily distracted by sounds? Do you enjoy sounds of all types?
Introspective – Do you enjoy solitude? Are you reflective? Do you like to explore your own feelings and thoughts?
Interpersonal – Are you good with others/people smart? Can you mediate arguments? Are you sensitive to others? Do you like teams, meetings, committees, and social events?
Fuente: Neuroscience of intelligence. (2005). Types of intelligence. Buscador: Google.com.ve/.http://www.Macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/intelligence05/Mtypes.html.
TEXTO C
internal-combustion engine - a heat engine in which combustion occurs inside the engine rather than in a separate furnace; heat expands a gas that either moves a piston or turns a gas turbine
ICE
diesel engine, diesel motor, diesel - an internal-combustion engine that burns heavy oil
cylinder block, engine block, block - a metal casting containing the cylinders and cooling ducts of an engine; "the engine had to be replaced because the block was cracked"
four-stroke engine, four-stroke internal-combustion engine - an internal-combustion engine in which an explosive mixture is drawn into the cylinder on the first stroke and is compressed and ignited on the second stroke; work is done on the third stroke and the products of combustion are exhausted on the fourth stroke
gas engine - an internal-combustion engine similar to a gasoline engine but using natural gas instead of gasoline vapor
gasoline engine - an internal-combustion engine that burns gasoline; most automobiles are driven by gasoline engines
heat engine - any engine that makes use of heat to do work
force feed, force-feed lubricating system, lubricating system, pressure feed, pressure-feed lubricating system - mechanical system of lubricating internal combustion engines in which a pump forces oil into the engine bearings
motorboat, powerboat - a boat propelled by an internal-combustion engine
automotive vehicle, motor vehicle - a self-propelled wheeled vehicle that does not run on rails
outboard motor, outboard - internal-combustion engine that mounts at stern of small boat
poppet, poppet valve - a mushroom-shaped valve that rises perpendicular from its seat; commonly used in internal-combustion engines
radial engine, rotary engine - an internal-combustion engine having cylinders arranged radially around a central crankcase
reciprocating engine - an internal-combustion engine in which the crankshaft is turned by pistons moving up and down in cylinders
rotary engine - an internal-combustion engine in which power is transmitted directly to rotating components
self-starter - an electric starting motor that automatically starts an internal-combustion engine
supercharger - compressor that forces increased oxygen into the cylinders of an internal-combustion engine
valve-in-head engine - internal-combustion engine having both inlet and exhaust valves located in the cylinder head
Fuente: The Free Dictionary, (2004) Internal Combustion Engine. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/internal-combustion%20engine, p. 1.
TEXTO D
Engine repair by Xado Additives Pro Series Small Engine repair | Engine Rebuilding Repair Exchange | Additive Engine Oil | Diesel Engine Maintenance. Complete Revitalization for all car mechanisms.
Optimize, Improve and Perfect the Tolerances in your Engine
Treatment Instructions
Following the present instruction ensures the desired technical effect and reliable and safe operation of units and friction joints.
1. In the presence of fresh molybdenum or teflon additives in the oil effectiveness of XADO may decrease.
2. This cermet protective coating is formed on any rubbing surfaces. However,if the conditions of given mechanism,engine, cylinder-and-piston group are critical (100% wear), destroyed parts need be replaced.
3. Prior to each treatment stage the engine is to be warmed up to its working temperature.
4. To obtaine the best effect, operate the motor car over the whole treatment period in a run-in mode(without overloading).
5. To obtaine the best effect after treatment of a cylinder, operate the motor car for 250 km in a run-in mode (without overloading).
6. Long storage is recommended at a temperature not exceeding 40oC.
7. Recommended for use on all new motor cars, joints and units.
Treatment procedure for internal combustion engines according to XADO-technology:
1. All engines are treatable. This cermet coating is formed on any functional mechanism. However,if the conditions of the mechanism are critical (100% wear), any destroyed parts need be replaced.
2. Complete treatment of an engine is performed in 3 stages:
1. Stage I. Warm the engine to its working temperature. Introduce the estimated quantity of XADO compound through the oil filler neck. Start the engine and allow it to idle for 30 min. Following this drive about 15-20 km with a minimal load (rotational speed of the engine maximum 2.500 r.p.m.)
2. Stage II. To be performed after a 100-250 km run in the same sequence. This treatment can be carried out after 4 h idling cycle of the engine (equivalent to a 200 km run)
3. Stage III. To be performed after a 100-250 km run in the same sequence.
3. After a 2.500 km run for carburetor and a 4.000 km run for commercial diesel engines from the start of Stage I, the engine treatment is considered completed.
Notes.
* This treatment should be performed without changing oil.
* Prior to treatment it is essential to wash cetrufugal filters.
* The engine must be warmed to at least 60 oC.
* This technique is also designed for engines, which have been converted to run on gaseous fuel.
Treatment procedure for reducers, transfer boxes and gearboxes according to XADO-technology
1. Introduce into the gearbox,transfer box or rear axle reducer XADO gel through the oil filler opening in the amount of 1 tube per 1.5 l of oil.
2. Immediately after said introduction of XADO gel drive about 10 km, including 100-300 m in reverse.
3. The treatment is considered completed after 100 h operation of the mechanism (3.000 km run)
Note. If after a 100-200 km run the mechanism's performance is not improved, the most likely cause of this may be a wrong diagnosis. Any inconsiderable improvement evidenced heavy wear of the mechanism. We recommend to double the dosage.
Treatment procedures for engines without oil system
1. Warm up the engine to the working temperature.
2. Unscrew the spark-plug out of the cylinder. If the engine has two cylinders, unscrew the spark-plugs out of both cylinders.
3. Place the piston to the top dead point (to prevent the gel come into the inlet and exhaust ports). If the head is removable then apply the gel directly to the walls of the cylinder and make the piston move 30-40 times not reaching inlet and exhaust ports. Then assemble the unit and fulfill items 5-9.
4. Squeeze the contents of one tube into the cylinder. If there are two cylinders then squeeze one tube into each cylinder.
Attention. You should squeeze the gel so as it comes to the wall of the cylinder, not to the piston .
5. Make piston move 15-20 times (by tugging, turning the set-up drive wheel)
6. Screw the spark-plug
7. Dissolve the contents of one more tube in 5-10 ml of motor oil and pour into the fuel tank
8. Start the engine and let it work on idle for 20-30 minutes
9. Drive 15-20 km with minimal load
10. After 250 km run the treatment is considered over.
TEXTO E
Inventors Rudolf Diesel (1858 - 1913)
By Mary Bellis
Rudolf Diesel was born in Paris in 1858. His parents were Bavarian immigrants. Rudolf Diesel was educated at Munich Polytechnic. After graduation he was employed as a refrigerator engineer. However, he true love lay in engine design. Rudolf Diesel designed many heat engines, including a solar-powered air engine. In 1893, he published a paper describing an engine with combustion within a cylinder, the internal combustion engine. In 1894, he filed for a patent for his new invention, dubbed the diesel engine. Rudolf Diesel was almost killed by his engine when it exploded. However, his engine was the first that proved that fuel could be ignited without a spark. He operated his first successful engine in 1897.
In 1898, Rudolf Diesel was granted patent #608,845 for an "internal combustion engine" the Diesel engine.
The diesel engines of today are refined and improved versions of Rudolf Diesel's original concept. They are often used in submarines, ships, locomotives, and large trucks and in electric generating plants.
Though best known for his invention of the pressure-ignited heat engine that bears his name, Rudolf Diesel was also a well-respected thermal engineer and a social theorist. Rudolf Diesel's inventions have three points in common: They relate to heat transference by natural physical processes or laws; they involve markedly creative mechanical design; and they were initially motivated by the inventor's concept of sociological needs. Rudolf Diesel originally conceived the diesel engine to enable independent craftsmen and artisans to compete with large industry.
At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10-foot iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. Rudolf Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with the theoretical efficiency of 75 percent, in contrast to the ten percent efficiency of the steam engine. By 1898, Rudolf Diesel was a millionaire. His engines were used to power pipelines, electric and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft, and soon after were used in mines, oil fields, factories, and transoceanic shipping.
Fuente: Bellis, M. (2003). Inventors Rudolf Diesel (1858 – 1913). Buscador: Google.Com.ve/. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bldiesel.htm.
TEXTO F
A Brief History of ME at Caltech
by Christopher E. Brennen Brief history of ME at Caltech
Like the rest of this special institution we call Caltech, the contributions and accomplishments of the Mechanical Engineering Department and faculty have been twofold. On the one hand our students have gone out into the world to power engineering innovation in industry, in government and especially in the universities of the world. On the other hand our faculty and students have made ground-breaking research contributions to key engineering issues and to new technologies.
Like the rest of Caltech, our students are represented in the faculties of the world in numbers out of all proportion to the number of our graduates. From MIT to Michigan and Princeton, from Georgia Tech to Illinois and Johns Hopkins, our Mechanical Engineering graduates are everywhere - including places as far flung as the National University of Taiwan, the University of Pisa, and the National Autonomous University of Mexico.
But also many of our graduates have risen to key positions in industry - in the aerospace business, in the oil industy, in the semiconductor industry, and more recently in the business of inventing new engineering technologies - indeed the scope of the presentations at the ME Centennial show how broad our contributions have been.
With respect to our research accomplishments, like many other Caltech engineering departments it is fair to say that we got off to a slow start in the early days, when the ``Division of Civil and Mechanical Engineering'' (as it was called at the time) focused on training engineers rather than research. Even then, however, our faculty were much involved with the Metropolitan Water District in the planning of the remarkable Colorado River Aqueduct System. Indeed the Pump Lab - which in its various phases was a very valuable contributor to this basic technology - had its start with that project. Thus it was that faculty like Franklin Thomas, Robert Dougherty, Howell Tyson and Don Clark laid the ground work for the new era of engineering research that was to come during and after the Second World War. Encouraged by von Karman, who had himself only recently arrived at Caltech, Robert Knapp built the world's leading research laboratory for cavitation and high-speed water flows. The Hydrodynamics Laboratory and its associated faculty -- Knapp, Hollander, Plesset, Acosta and Wu -- reeled off a body of fundamental research in this area that dominated the subject for decades and, by extension, led to numerous innovations in naval and other applications. It even makes an appearance in Tom Clancy's ``Hunt for Red October''. Moreover, the early work in cavitation naturally led to research in other multiphase flows. Plesset, Sabersky and Marble, for example, were deeply involved in the multiphase research needed for the analysis of nuclear reactor accident scenarios. Sabersky was perhaps one of the world leaders in identifying the problems and issues associated with granular material flows, an area in which research continues to this day.
Other parallel efforts in internal flows began about the same time. The Pump Lab under Knapp's direction continued to revolutionize knowledge of the internal workings of those ubiquitous machines. Kyropoulos's interest in internal combustion engines initiated a strong interaction with GM. And in the same era, Rannie and Sabersky began the first basic investigations of the internal flows in axial turbomachines - an effort that expanded through the efforts of Rannie and Marble into fundamental research on gas turbines and combustion that provided important steps in the development of the modern gas turbine. Later, Zukoski expanded this combustion research to fires in buildings and contributed significantly to the effort and strategy of fire prevention.
The effort in turbomachine research continued through the last quarter of the 1900s, but with the focus shifted to key research on the unsteady flows and instabilities associated with these devices. This led to the first delineation of the dynamic response of these complex flows and a methodology for the analysis of instabilities such as the Pogo instability endemic to liquid-propelled rockets. In a parallel effort, Culick identified mechanisms of instability in solid rocket motors.
This later emphasis on dynamics of all kinds of mechanical devices and natural processes was a strong component of the ME research during the late 1900s. Caughey contributed a veritable library of key advances in understanding non-linear dynamics and how to view the complex probabilistic components of non-linear vibrations.
About the same time Knowles, Sternberg and Shield were making fundamental contributions to the mathematical theory of elasticity. They initiated a systematic study of material instabilities, and this naturally led to the study of phase-transforming solids and active materials. Concepts introduced by Knowles are now part of the standard language of the mechanics of these materials.
Beginning in the mid 1980's, the ME department underwent another metamorphosis, as large in scope as the post-war transformation. Young faculty were hired who struck out in new research directions and who went on to make seminal contributions in fields such as design, control, medical robotics, computational mechanics, thin films and microdevices. ME faculty also took on substantial administrative and leadership roles during this time, including as EAS Division Chair, Chief Technologist at JPL, Vice-President for Student Affairs, Dean of Students, Chair of the Faculty, and Director of GALCIT, greatly expanding the visibility and influence of ME as a whole within the Institute.
Today, there is no doubt that the strength, scope, and visibility of the ME faculty and its activities are greater than they have ever been. As one measure, Caltech's ME program is ranked third in the nation by US News and World Report despite being an order of magnitude smaller than the competition. Remarkably, all of our eligible faculty have won prestigious young investigator awards. Our research activity encompasses new and exciting areas such as robotics in biomedical and biological contexts, new and exotic materials areas such as chemical vapor deposition, fuel cells, and materials with memory, computational efforts to model the most complex solids and fluids, studies of combustion and detonation, analyses and experiments on fracture in materials and in the earth's surface and on granular flows, strategies to model the dynamics and design of large scale systems.
And what of the future? Though predictions of the future are notoriously difficult, research on the crucial topic of meeting the world's energy needs without destroying the planet in the process will certainly be a major focus. Moreover, it also seems clear that there will be real opportunities in three key areas: mechanical engineering on the micro- and nano-scale, research at the boundaries of biology and engineering, and efforts to design and control large and complex engineering systems. ME must strive to find the unique Caltech contributions to these efforts and the world's needs. How will it all turn out? We don't know, but we expect an exciting ride - stay tuned, and we'll tell you all about it at our bicentennial in 2107.
Fuente: Brennen, Ch. (2007). A Brief History of ME at Caltech”. Buscador: Google.co.ve/. http://www.me.caltech.edu/centennial/history/history1.htm
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